Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1918–1922): When and Why Did It Happen?

The Ottoman Empire effectively came to an end with the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, and legally with the abolition of the sultanate on 1 November 1922. These dates, however, are only the last links in a dissolution that lasted more than two centuries. In this article we examine the dates of the fall of the Ottoman Empire, its long-term causes and the events of the final years, with reference to the sources.

Quick Summary

The Armistice of Mudros (1918) was the moment of the state’s de facto surrender.
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey abolished the sultanate on 1 November 1922.
The last sultan, Mehmed VI, left Istanbul on 17 November 1922.
The roots of the collapse lie in long-term shifts in military, financial and political balances.
The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) gained international recognition for the borders of the new Turkey.

When did it fall? The short answer
A long process of dissolution
Five main causes
The Balkan Wars and the First World War
From Mudros to Lausanne
Consequences of the fall
Did it really last 600 years?
Frequently asked questions

When Did the Ottoman Empire Fall? The Short Answer

There is no single date for the fall of the Ottoman Empire, because the state came to an end step by step. The table below summarizes the critical dates of this process, based on the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam.

Date	Event	Significance
30 October 1918	Armistice of Mudros	De facto surrender and the start of the occupations
10 August 1920	Treaty of Sèvres	Signed, but never put into force
1 November 1922	Abolition of the sultanate	The legal end of the state
17 November 1922	Departure of Mehmed VI	The last sultan leaves the country
24 July 1923	Treaty of Lausanne	International recognition of the new state
29 October 1923	Proclamation of the Republic	The beginning of the new regime

The Collapse Was Not a Single Event: A Long Dissolution

Historians usually trace the fall of the Ottoman Empire back to the failure of the Siege of Vienna in 1683. The Treaty of Karlowitz that followed in 1699 was the first major loss of territory. After this date the empire went on the defensive against Europe.

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 26 July 1774, marked a new era. With this treaty the Crimean Khanate was declared independent, and Russia established itself in a strong position on the Black Sea. The annexation of Crimea by Russia soon afterwards meant, for the first time, the loss of a land with a dense Muslim population.

In the nineteenth century, nationalist revolts accelerated the fall of the Ottoman Empire. After the independence of Greece, new states emerged one after another in the Balkans. The Ottoman-Russian wars were the heaviest breaking points of this process; for details, see our article on the Ottoman-Russian wars.

Why Did the Ottoman Empire Fall? Five Main Causes

Historians do not attribute the fall of the Ottoman Empire to a single cause. The five factors below reinforced one another and weakened the state.

1. The Shift in the Military Balance

From the seventeenth century onward, technology, training and organization developed rapidly in European armies. The Janissary Corps, meanwhile, turned into a body that resisted reform. For its abolition in 1826, see our article Why was the Janissary Corps abolished?. When the new army was established, it was not easy to make up for lost time.

2. Financial Collapse and Foreign Debt

Economic weakness had begun before the foreign debts. The Treaty of Balta Liman, signed with Britain in 1838, granted broad privileges to foreign merchants. Local production became unable to compete with cheap European goods.

The state took out its first foreign loan during the Crimean War, in 1854. Over the next twenty years the debts grew rapidly, and in 1875 payments began to falter. The Ottoman Public Debt Administration (Düyûn-ı Umûmiyye), established in 1881, led to the collection of important state revenues on behalf of foreign creditors. The loss of financial independence also weakened political independence.

3. Nationalism

Nationalism, spread by the French Revolution, directly targeted the multireligious and multilingual empire. Independence movements arose first among the Balkan peoples and then among other communities of the empire. For the general framework of this influence, you can read our article on the effects of the French Revolution.

4. Intervention by the Great Powers

The European states made the future of the empire a subject of bargaining among themselves. This issue came to be known as the Eastern Question. The capitulations and the claim to protect minorities became instruments of interference in internal affairs.

5. Delayed Reforms

The Tanzimat, the Reform Edict and the constitutional periods brought important reforms. However, these reforms were often implemented late and under external pressure. For the efforts to move to constitutional government, see our article on democratization movements.

The fall of the Ottoman Empire: when and why did it happen?

The Final Blow in the Fall of the Ottoman Empire: The Balkan Wars and the First World War

The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 ended with the empire losing almost all of its territory in Rumelia. This defeat deeply shook the ruling elite. For details, see our article on the Balkan Wars.

In 1914 the state entered the First World War on the side of Germany. An important defensive victory was won at Gallipoli, but heavy losses were suffered on the Caucasus, Iraq and Palestine fronts. For the importance of Gallipoli, you can read our article on the Gallipoli Campaign.

According to the encyclopedia, on 14 October 1918 Ahmed İzzet Pasha, who opposed the policies of the Committee of Union and Progress, formed a new government. The grand vizier’s first task was to seek a path to peace with the Entente powers. Rauf Bey was minister of the navy in this government.

At the end of the war, according to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the Ottoman delegation took part in four days of talks aboard the battleship Agamemnon in the harbor of Mudros on the island of Lemnos. In the end the delegation was forced to accept the terms dictated by Admiral Calthorpe. Article 7 of the armistice, signed on 30 October 1918, allowed the Allies to occupy any strategic point if their security was threatened. This article soon opened the door to extensive occupations.

From Mudros to Lausanne: The Legal End

On 10 August 1920 the Istanbul government signed the Treaty of Sèvres. The treaty partitioned most of Anatolia, but it never entered into force. The assembly in Ankara did not recognize the treaty, and at the end of the War of Independence Sèvres became void. According to the encyclopedia, Ankara’s reaction was very harsh; in a secret session of the assembly it was argued that the sultan could not be regarded as a legitimate caliph.

According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey abolished the sultanate on 1 November 1922. The Istanbul government was deemed to have ceased to exist as of 16 March 1920, when the city was officially occupied. The last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdeddin, left Istanbul on 17 November 1922 aboard a British ship named Malaya.

After the Armistice of Mudanya, Britain, France and Italy invited the Istanbul and Ankara governments to peace talks in Lausanne on 27 October 1922. According to the encyclopedia, eight states including Turkey took part in the conference as negotiators, while the United States preferred to remain an observer. At one stage of the talks, no agreement could be reached on the islands, Mosul, the capitulations and the war reparations demanded from Greece.

The Treaty of Lausanne, signed on 24 July 1923, gained international recognition for the borders of the new Turkey. Article 28 of the treaty abolished the capitulations completely. The Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, and the caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924. Thus the empire’s last institution also passed into history. We discussed how the caliphate passed to the Ottomans in our article How did the caliphate pass to the Ottomans?.

Consequences of the Fall of the Ottoman Empire: New States and a Lasting Legacy

The dissolution of the empire shaped much of today’s map. In the Balkans, states such as Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and Albania had already gained independence. After the First World War, the Arab provinces came under British and French mandate rule.

Iraq, Palestine and Jordan were left under British control, and Syria and Lebanon under French control. A large part of the borders in these regions was drawn through the bargaining of that time. In Anatolia, the movement that won the War of Independence founded a new nation-state.

Even so, the empire’s legacy did not disappear. Its legal tradition, urban fabric, architectural works and social structures continued to leave their mark on all of the successor states. This legacy shows that the fall of the Ottoman Empire was as much a transition as an end.

Did the Ottoman Empire Really Last 600 Years?

The year 1299 is traditionally accepted as the date of its founding. If this date is taken as the basis, the state lasted about 623 years, until 1922. That is why the expression “six-century empire” is broadly correct. It should be remembered, however, that the founding date is not certain. For its place in world history, see our article on the empire’s place in world history.

Frequently Asked Questions

What event marked the end of the Ottoman Empire?

It ended legally on 1 November 1922, when the Grand National Assembly of Turkey abolished the sultanate. The de facto surrender had already taken place with the Armistice of Mudros in 1918.

Who was the last Ottoman sultan?

The last sultan was Mehmed VI Vahdeddin (1918–1922). According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, he was born on 4 January 1861 in Dolmabahçe Palace; his father was Sultan Abdülmecid. After leaving Istanbul he settled in San Remo, Italy, and died there in 1926.

What was the most important cause of the fall of the Ottoman Empire?

There is no single cause. Military decline, financial collapse, nationalism and the intervention of the great powers worked together. The First World War struck the final blow.

Conclusion

The fall of the Ottoman Empire did not happen overnight but in a process lasting more than two centuries. The territorial losses that began with Karlowitz combined with financial dependence and nationalist movements. The First World War brought this process to an end, and the abolition of the sultanate completed it legally.