Ottoman Reform Movements: From the Nizam-ı Cedid to the Constitution, 1720

From the 18th century onwards the Ottoman sultans turned to military, administrative and legal reform movements in order to keep the state alive. Selim III’s Nizam-ı Cedid, Mahmud II’s abolition of the Janissary corps and the Tanzimat Edict proclaimed in the reign of Abdülmecid were the turning points of this process. The process reached constitutional government with the two constitutional periods of 1876 and 1908.

Quick Summary

The main aim of the reforms was to protect the state against military defeat and disintegration.
Selim III founded a European-style army with the Nizam-ı Cedid.
Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps on 17 June 1826.
The Tanzimat Edict was read on 3 November 1839, in the reign of Abdülmecid.
Abdülhamid II proclaimed the first constitution in 1876 and prorogued parliament in 1878.

The reasons for the reforms
The Tulip Era and the first searches
Selim III and the Nizam-ı Cedid
Mahmud II and the Auspicious Incident
Abdülmecid and the Tanzimat
The reign of Abdülaziz
Abdülhamid II and the constitution
1908 and the Second Constitutional Period
Were the reforms successful?
Frequently asked questions

Why Did the Ottoman Sultans Turn to Reform Movements?

The Ottoman sultans turned to reform because of the wounds inflicted by defeat. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, in the period of peace that began with the Treaty of Jassy in 1792 it became clear how serious the military weakness was. Even before the Russian war ended, the army had officially declared that it could no longer fight. This situation made restructuring unavoidable.

Another reason for the reforms was foreign pressure. The European powers frequently used the rights of non-Muslim subjects as a pretext for interfering in internal affairs. Nationalist currents were also straining the empire’s multinational structure. That is why, over time, the reforms came to cover all the institutions of the state as well as the army.

The Tulip Era and the First Searches

Cultural contacts with the West intensified in the reign of Ahmed III, during the Tulip Era. In this period İbrahim Müteferrika’s printing press was founded, and Turkish books began to be printed. The observations of Yirmisekiz Mehmed Çelebi, who went to Paris in 1720, also increased interest in the West. These steps, however, did not turn into a lasting reform of the state. We described the period in our article What Did the Ottoman Tulip Era Mean?

Selim III and the Nizam-ı Cedid

The first great step of the reform period came from Selim III. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, in his reign the term Nizam-ı Cedid, “new order”, was used in the sense of renewing all civil and military institutions according to the needs of the age. A new army trained in the European manner was founded. An engineering school was opened in 1795, and permanent embassies were established in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna.

According to the encyclopedia, a printing press was opened at the engineering school in 1797, and large barracks were built at Levent and Üsküdar. Units similar to the new army also began to be set up in various parts of Anatolia.

The reforms, however, met strong opposition. According to the encyclopedia, the revolt of Kabakçı Mustafa in 1807 ended with the deposition of Selim III. According to the encyclopedia, the movement of renewal was interrupted by coups and counter-coups that led to the deaths of Selim III and Mustafa IV. We discussed the external factors of this period in our article on the effects of the French Revolution.

Mahmud II and the Auspicious Incident

Mahmud II came to the throne on 28 July 1808. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, he regarded bringing the state’s administrative system to a centralized level like that of the European states as a necessity for survival. The greatest obstacle to this was the Janissary corps. The corps was abolished on 17 June 1826, and the event is known in the sources as the “Vaka-i Hayriye”, the Auspicious Incident.

According to the encyclopedia, Mahmud II tried out a system close to the European cabinet model with ministries such as those of Foreign Affairs, the Interior and Finance. In 1831 the newspaper Takvim-i Vekayi began to appear, and the reforms were announced to the public. The jacket, trousers and fez were adopted for civil servants. French gained weight as the language of instruction at the School of Engineering, the War College and the School of Medicine.

According to the encyclopedia, in 1826 the Ministry of Imperial Endowments was founded to bring endowment revenues under a single hand. Advisory councils such as the Dar-ı Şura-yı Babıali and the Meclis-i Vala-yı Ahkam-ı Adliye were also set up in this period. Decisions thus began to pass through the filter of councils rather than of a single person.

We described the background of the abolition of the Janissary corps in our article Why was the Janissary corps abolished?

Ottoman sultans and reform movements: efforts at modernization

Abdülmecid and the Tanzimat Edict

The sultan who launched the Tanzimat was not Mahmud II, as is often thought, but his son Abdülmecid. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Abdülmecid came to the throne at the age of sixteen on 1 July 1839, on the death of his father. At the same time the defeat at Nizip had made the Egyptian question grave. The Gülhane Rescript prepared by Mustafa Reşid Pasha was read on 3 November 1839 in the presence of community leaders and foreign envoys. The edict introduced principles such as the security of life and property and the protection of certain rights.

The cost of the reforms was also heavy. The new army, schools and institutions required great expenditure. The first foreign loan was taken out in 1854, during the Crimean War.

According to the encyclopedia, the edict did not include the principle of national sovereignty. Even so, for the first time the Ottoman sultans made a commitment limiting their own powers by law. The Reform Edict proclaimed in 1856 extended the rights of non-Muslims and abolished the jizya. We discussed this transformation in our article on the millet system.

The Innovations of the Reign of Abdülaziz

In the reign of Abdülaziz the reforms continued in law and education. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the Mecelle, which was to serve as a civil code, was prepared over ten years of work. In 1868 the Mekteb-i Sultani, that is Galatasaray High School, which taught according to the French educational system, was opened. In the same year the Meclis-i Vala was divided into two, the Council of State and the Divan-ı Ahkam-ı Adliye. According to the encyclopedia, foreigners were also granted the right to own property in this period.

According to the encyclopedia, Abdülaziz was the only one of the Ottoman sultans to travel abroad. On the journey that began on 21 June 1867 he visited France and England, returning to Istanbul on 7 August 1867. The journey helped improve relations with Europe.

Abdülhamid II: The Constitution and Modernization

According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the state’s first constitution, the Kanun-ı Esasi, was proclaimed on 23 December 1876 with a salute of a hundred and one guns. According to the encyclopedia, the General Assembly worked for two sessions from 19 March 1877. On the basis of the power the constitution gave him, Abdülhamid II prorogued the Chamber of Deputies indefinitely on 13 February 1878. According to the encyclopedia, however, he made no statement that he had abandoned constitutional government and the constitution.

This was a period of great progress in education. According to the encyclopedia, Abdülhamid II had rüşdiye schools set up in all the provinces and most of the sanjaks and took primary schools as far as the villages. The Darülfünun and many institutions of higher education were opened in his reign. Telegraph lines were laid as far as the Hejaz and Basra.

According to the encyclopedia, experts were brought from Germany for military reform, and Turkish officers were sent to Germany for training. The teaching of foreign languages was made compulsory from the rüşdiye schools onwards. Girls’ vocational schools and the women’s teacher training college, the Darülmuallimat, were also opened in this period. We discussed this period in our article The reign of Abdülhamid II: despotism or modernization?

1908 and the Second Constitutional Period

According to the encyclopedia, a group of Turkish officers forced the sultan to proclaim the constitution again. On 23 July 1908 Abdülhamid II announced that he had put the Kanun-ı Esasi back into force. Parliament was reopened and political parties were founded. According to the encyclopedia, however, this event, known as the Second Constitutional Period, contrary to expectations further accelerated the disintegration of the empire.

Were the Reform Movements Successful?

The reforms prolonged the life of the state but could not stop its collapse. The new institutions founded in the army, education and law formed the backbone that carried the state through its last century. On the other hand, most of the reforms were made from the top down, and it took time for them to reach broad sections of society. Foreign pressure and nationalism also blocked these efforts.

The Ottoman sultans tried different paths in the reform process. Some gave priority to the army, some to administration, some to education. In this respect the Ottoman sultans saw modernization as a path to salvation. The new cadres they trained also formed the basis of the Republican period. We discussed the sultans’ approach to government separately in our article on Ottoman sultans and state administration.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who was the first reformer among the Ottoman sultans?

The first sultan to launch a comprehensive reform programme was Selim III. He carried out military and administrative innovations under the name Nizam-ı Cedid.

Which sultan proclaimed the Tanzimat Edict?

Abdülmecid. The edict was read at Gülhane on 3 November 1839; Mahmud II had died in July of that year.

Did any of the Ottoman sultans travel to Europe?

Yes. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Abdülaziz visited France and England in 1867.

When was the Janissary corps abolished?

It was abolished on 17 June 1826, in the reign of Mahmud II. The event is known as the Vaka-i Hayriye.

When was the first constitution proclaimed?

It was proclaimed on 23 December 1876. It is known as the Kanun-ı Esasi.

Conclusion

From the end of the 18th century the Ottoman sultans carried out comprehensive reform movements in order to save the state. Selim III founded a new army, Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and Abdülmecid launched the Tanzimat. Abdülaziz renewed law and education, while Abdülhamid II proclaimed the first constitution and spread schools. Although these reforms could not save the empire, they prepared the ground for the institutions of modern Turkey.