Military organization in the Ottoman Empire consisted of the salaried Kapıkulu troops attached to the sultan, the provincial troops based on the timar system, and the navy. The most numerous and most influential branch of the Kapıkulu corps was the Janissaries. In the provinces, the timariot sipahis formed the army’s cavalry force. In its main lines, this order lasted until the abolition of the Janissary Corps in 1826.
Quick Summary
- The army was divided into three main branches: the Kapıkulu troops, the provincial troops and the navy.
- The Kapıkulu infantry consisted of seven corps: the acemis (novices), Janissaries, cebecis (armorers), artillerymen, gun-carriage drivers, humbaracıs (bombardiers) and lağımcıs (sappers).
- The Kapıkulu cavalry was called the “Six Divisions” (Altı Bölük) to distinguish it from the timariot sipahis.
- Timar holders had to bring a number of mounted soldiers called “cebelü” in proportion to their income.
- Akıncı raiding lasted about 250 years and lost its importance after 1595.
Contents
- How did the military organization emerge?
- The Kapıkulu troops
- The Kapıkulu cavalry: the Six Divisions
- Provincial troops and the timar system
- The akıncıs
- The navy and the Imperial Arsenal
- The transformation of the organization
- Frequently asked questions
How Did Military Organization in the Ottoman Empire Emerge?
In the first years of the beylik, military power rested on tribal forces and mounted gazis. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the foundations of the akıncıs, who raided along the frontiers, were laid, according to tradition, by Köse Mihal in the time of Osman Gazi. Until the reign of Orhan Bey, conquests were made largely with these forces.
The wars fought against Byzantium’s regular infantry increased the need for foot soldiers. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam’s entry Yaya ve Müsellem, the first salaried infantry unit was probably founded in the reign of Orhan Bey. The encyclopedia states that the first battle in which infantry units are thought to have taken part was the Battle of Pelekanon in 1329. We discussed the details of this process in our article on the first regular army.
The real turning point was the reign of Murad I. According to the encyclopedia, the Acemi Ocağı (Novice Corps) was founded in Gelibolu under Murad I for the salaried soldiers, who had numbered about a thousand under Orhan Bey. Soldiers were first recruited through the pencik law, which reserved one fifth of the prisoners of war for the state. As conquests slowed, the devshirme method was gradually adopted.
The Kapıkulu Troops
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the term kapıkulu referred to the salaried military groups attached directly to the sultan and serving at the palace. These units were the Ottoman counterpart of the household troops of earlier Islamic states. They were stationed mainly at the center, and on campaign they protected the sultan and his imperial tent. The Kapıkulu troops were divided into two main groups: infantry and cavalry.
The Kapıkulu infantry consisted of seven corps: the acemi, Janissary, cebeci, artillery, gun-carriage, humbaracı and lağımcı corps. The Acemi Ocağı trained soldiers for the other corps, above all the Janissaries. The Janissary Corps was the first of these corps to be founded, the most numerous and the most influential. According to the encyclopedia, from the fifteenth century onward it was also known as the “Bektashi Corps,” after Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli.
Each of the other corps had its own particular duty. The cebecis supplied the Janissaries with weapons and maintained and guarded them. The artillerymen cast and operated cannons, while the gun-carriage drivers built the carriages that transported the large cannons. The humbaracıs prepared a kind of hand grenade, and the lağımcıs dug tunnels under the walls during sieges. According to the encyclopedia, the humbaracıs at the center were salaried, while those in the provinces held land grants (dirlik).
We described the daily life and duties of the Janissaries in detail in our article Who were the Janissaries?, and how soldiers were recruited in our article on the devshirme system.
The Kapıkulu Cavalry: the Six Divisions
The mounted Kapıkulu corps consisted of the sipah, silahdar, ulufeci and gureba divisions. Because the ulufeci and gureba divisions were each further divided into right and left, the number of divisions rose to six. According to the encyclopedia, these cavalrymen were called the “Six Divisions” (Altı Bölük) to distinguish them from the timariot sipahis. The first mounted division to be founded was the silahdars, while the sipah division was founded in the reign of Mehmed II.
There was also a ranking among the divisions. The sipah and silahdar divisions were the most privileged units and were known as the “upper divisions.” The Kapıkulu cavalry outranked the infantry, but in influence it came after the Janissaries. At first these soldiers went on campaign only with the sultan; from the reign of Murad III onward, they also began to campaign under the command of grand viziers.
Provincial Troops and the Timar System
The largest part of the Ottoman military organization consisted of the timariot sipahis in the provinces. In the timar system, the state assigned the tax revenue of a particular area to a sipahi in return for military service. According to the encyclopedia, every holder of a timar, zeamet or has had to bring to the campaign a number of equipped mounted soldiers called “cebelü” in proportion to his income.
The TDV Encyclopedia of Islam’s entry on the timar gives striking figures on the size of this force. According to İdris-i Bitlisi, in 1473 the timariot army of Anatolia numbered about 20,000 men and that of Rumelia 24,000. In official records dated 1527–1528, the number of timar holders appears as 37,521. Of these, 9,563 were fortress guards, and the rest were cavalrymen who took part in campaigns.
This system also occupied a large place in the state budget. According to the encyclopedia, if the revenues of Egypt are left aside, almost half of public revenues were allocated to timars. A beylerbeyi stood at the head of each province (eyalet) and a sancakbeyi at the head of each district (sancak). In some provinces, however, such as Egypt, Baghdad, Yemen and Basra, the timar system was not applied, and revenues were collected annually.
The Changing Role of the Yaya and Müsellem
The yaya and müsellem, which emerged as fighting units in the reign of Orhan Bey, were gradually withdrawn to the army’s rear services. According to the encyclopedia, in return for the farms left to them, these soldiers performed tasks such as opening roads, hauling cannons and carrying provisions. Within the country they also worked in mines, shipyards and construction. By a decision of 1582, this organization was abolished in many districts of Anatolia, and the yayas were registered as ordinary reaya (tax-paying subjects).
The Akıncıs
The akıncıs were light cavalry who carried out swift raids into enemy territory along the frontiers. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, command of the akıncıs passed from father to son in famous families. The akıncıs attached to Evrenos Bey were based in Albania, the Turhanoğulları in the Morea, the Mihaloğulları around Sofia and the Malkoçoğulları around Silistra. Every ten akıncıs were commanded by an onbaşı, every hundred by a subaşı and every thousand by a binbaşı.
According to the encyclopedia, the akıncıs numbered about 40,000 at the end of the sixteenth century. However, the defeat of Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha by Michael the Brave in Wallachia in 1595 led to a heavy loss. Very few of the akıncıs left on the far side of the Danube managed to escape, and about 100,000 raiding horses perished. Thus the era of the akıncıs, which had lasted about 250 years, effectively came to an end.
The Navy and the Imperial Arsenal
The center of naval organization was the Tersane-i Amire (Imperial Arsenal). According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the arsenal took shape in Gelibolu with the founding of the state, and as the state expanded it moved to the Golden Horn in Istanbul and grew. The Ottomans also made use of older shipyards such as those in İzmit, Gemlik and Gelibolu and the Kadırga Harbor in Istanbul. The shipbuilding base in Galata took the name Tersane-i Amire in the time of Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha.
At the head of the navy stood the kaptan-ı derya (grand admiral). Alongside the soldiers who rowed and fought on the ships, captains (reis) specialized in seafaring served on board. We told the story of the schools that trained engineers for the navy in our article on the word meaning military school.
The Transformation of Military Organization
Military organization in the Ottoman Empire underwent a radical change with the spread of firearms. From the seventeenth century onward, the timar system weakened, and the weight of the army shifted to salaried soldiers. As the number of Kapıkulu troops grew, discipline broke down, and these soldiers were frequently involved in uprisings in the capital. The new army that Selim III founded under the name Nizam-ı Cedid was disbanded in 1807 by the Kabakçı Mustafa revolt.
The decisive break in the military organization came in the reign of Mahmud II. The Janissary Corps was abolished on 17 June 1826 and replaced by a new army called the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediyye. You can find the details of this event in our article on the Auspicious Incident (Vaka-i Hayriye).
Frequently Asked Questions
What parts did military organization in the Ottoman Empire consist of?
It consisted of three main parts: the salaried Kapıkulu troops attached to the sultan, the provincial troops based on the timar system, and the navy. The akıncıs were a separate force serving along the frontiers.
When was military organization in the Ottoman Empire established?
The organization was not established on a single date. The first salaried infantry unit was probably formed in the reign of Orhan Bey, while the foundations of the Janissary Corps were laid in Gelibolu in the reign of Murad I.
Who were the Kapıkulu troops?
They were salaried soldiers attached directly to the sultan and stationed at the center. They consisted of the infantry corps and the cavalry divisions known as the Six Divisions.
What were the Six Divisions?
It was the general name of the Kapıkulu cavalry. It consisted of the sipahs, the silahdars, the right and left ulufecis, and the right and left gurebas.
What did a timariot sipahi do?
In return for the tax revenue assigned to him, he joined campaigns on horseback. Depending on his income, he also brought soldiers called cebelü with him, and in peacetime he kept order in his area.
Conclusion
Military organization in the Ottoman Empire rested on a balance between the Kapıkulu corps at the center and the timariot sipahis in the provinces. While the akıncıs pressed on the frontiers, the ships built at the Imperial Arsenal provided power at sea. For centuries this structure was the instrument of great conquests. The balance, which broke down after the seventeenth century, came to an end in 1826 with the transition to a new army order.
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