Ottoman art and architecture show a long development stretching from the early buildings of Bursa to the classical works of Sinan and the baroque mosques of the eighteenth century. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the basic quest of this architecture was a central space unified beneath a great dome. In this article we examine the plan types, the periods, the decorative arts and the organization of architects.
Quick Summary
- The single-domed plan was common in small mosques.
- Mosques with zaviyes, that is, with tabhanes (hospices), were built in large numbers in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
- In the Şehzade Mosque (1544–1548), four semi-domes brought the central plan to maturity.
- The 31.5-meter dome of the Selimiye is regarded as the peak of the central plan.
- Baroque and Empire influences appeared from the mid-eighteenth century onward.
- The Corps of Imperial Architects (Hassa Mimarları Ocağı) was founded after the conquest of Istanbul.
Contents
- Plan types
- The classical period
- Western influences
- Tiles and decoration
- The Corps of Imperial Architects
- Frequently asked questions
What Are the Main Characteristics of Ottoman Art and Architecture?
In Ottoman art and architecture, the plan of a mosque varied with its size. According to the encyclopedia, the single-domed mosque type was common among small places of worship. In these, a square prayer hall covered by a single dome stood behind a two- or three-part portico open to the outside. The finest example in Istanbul is the Firuz Ağa Mosque, built in 1491.
In the buildings of Bursa, masonry of alternating stone and brick created a colorful appearance. Neighborhood mescids, on the other hand, were often simple rectangular buildings with tiled wooden roofs. The Yatağan Mosque and the Burmalı Mescid, known for its spiral minaret, are interesting examples of this group. No multi-domed great mosque was built in Istanbul; however, in the mosque that Vizier Atik Ali Pasha had built in Karagümrük, six equal domes reflect this scheme.
The Fatih and Bayezid Mosques
According to the encyclopedia, the first Fatih Mosque was built between 1462 and 1470 by the architect Sinan-ı Atik. Its prayer hall was covered by a large dome and a semi-dome supporting it on the mihrab side. The mosque stood at the center of the largest and richest Ottoman complex, laid out on a symmetrical plan. A madrasa, a hospital, a hospice, a tomb, a caravanserai, a bath and a market were parts of this complex.
The Bayezid Mosque in Istanbul (1501–1505) took this arrangement a step further. On the main axis, a semi-dome was placed on either side of the great dome. According to the encyclopedia, although the plan recalls Hagia Sophia, the two buildings reached a similar result by different routes. For Ottoman architects, Hagia Sophia was merely a concrete example.
Mosques with Zaviyes
According to the encyclopedia, mosques with zaviyes, that is, with tabhanes, were built in considerable numbers in this period. The Bayezid Mosque in Edirne, built between 1484 and 1488, and the Yavuz Selim Mosque in Istanbul, built in 1520–1522, are among the most monumental examples of this group. These two buildings are also among the largest single-domed mosques.
The Külliye Layout
The külliye was one of the defining features of Ottoman art and architecture: great mosques often formed the center of a külliye (complex) with buildings such as a madrasa, a soup kitchen, a bath and a tomb. According to the encyclopedia, the rich group of buildings around the Süleymaniye shows perfect harmony with the city’s topography. We explained how these institutions were financed in our article on the waqf system.
The Classical Period: Toward the Central Dome
The classical period marks the high point of Ottoman art and architecture. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the arrangement first applied in the Üç Şerefeli Mosque in Edirne was repeated for a long time in various buildings. Mimar Sinan used this plan for the last time, with small changes, in the Sinan Pasha Mosque in Beşiktaş in 1555. In the Mihrimah Sultan (İskele) Mosque in Üsküdar, built in 1547, the main dome was supported on three sides by semi-domes.
In the Şehzade Mosque, which he built between 1544 and 1548, Sinan increased the number of semi-domes supporting the central dome to four. The encyclopedia describes this building as a work with a central plan and as one of the most secure in structural terms. The Süleymaniye (1550–1557), with its harmonious plan and consciously designed superstructure, achieved perfection in both soundness and appearance.
The most perfect example of the central plan is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne (1569–1575). According to the encyclopedia, the main dome, 31.5 meters in diameter and set among four minarets each with three balconies, dominates the whole prayer hall. The dome rests on eight piers, and the transition from the octagon is achieved with pendentives. Around it there are only two madrasas and an arasta (row of shops) added later.
According to the encyclopedia, Sinan had earlier tried out this eight-support plan around 1561 in the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. He applied the same architecture in Istanbul in the Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque at Azapkapı. This solution of the classical Ottoman mosque was repeated in later centuries in many buildings from Tokat to Shumen. We discussed the life of Mimar Sinan and the patronage of the sultans in our article on the sultans and the arts.
Western Influences in the Eighteenth Century
According to the encyclopedia, Western European influences, which grew stronger from the mid-eighteenth century onward, gave rise first to Turkish baroque and then to the Turkish Empire style. These influences opened a new chapter in Ottoman art and architecture. The mosques of this period brought no important architectural innovation. However, exterior decoration, arch forms and proportions changed considerably, and interior decoration took on an entirely foreign character.
The Nuruosmaniye Mosque, begun by Mahmud I and completed by Osman III in 1755, is with its semicircular courtyard a full representative of the baroque style. In the Laleli Mosque, which Mustafa III had built between 1759 and 1763, classical elements continued while baroque profiles were used in the arches. According to the encyclopedia, baroque architecture remained limited in Turkish mosques.
In this period an old building was also reshaped. The first Fatih Mosque, badly damaged in the earthquake of 1765, was rebuilt by Mustafa III between 1766 and 1771. In the new building the plan was changed completely, and the four-semi-dome arrangement used in the Şehzade, Sultan Ahmed and Yeni Valide mosques was adopted.
The Tulip Era, just before this change, is remembered as a period when new tastes came to the fore in palace circles.
Tiles and the Decorative Arts
In Ottoman art and architecture, decoration took care to respect the primacy of the building itself. According to the encyclopedia, the interior decoration of the Süleymaniye was applied carefully so as not to hide the building’s strong lines. The tiles of the Selimiye, as can be understood from imperial decrees dated 1572, were specially ordered from İznik.
In sixteenth-century İznik tiles, a distinctive coral red was used for about half a century. In these tiles, tulips, hyacinths and similar flowers were drawn with a naturalistic approach. From the first half of the seventeenth century onward, the technique began to stagnate and decline.
During the time of Damad İbrahim Pasha, a workshop was set up in the Tekfur Palace in Istanbul, with a master craftsman and kiln materials brought from İznik, to revive the art of tile-making. According to the encyclopedia, this attempt came to an end twenty-five years later. The tiles of Topkapı Palace, meanwhile, bring together all periods of Ottoman tile art. For this reason the palace is a unique example for anyone who wants to follow the history of tiles in a single place.
The Corps of Imperial Architects and the Chief Architect
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the Corps of Imperial Architects (Hassa Mimarları Ocağı) was founded after the conquest of Istanbul and was attached to the Birun (outer service) of the palace. Administrative matters such as materials and payments were handled by the şehremini, while the corps undertook all technical work. The head of the corps was called the mimarbaşı (chief architect), mimar ağa or Hassa mimarbaşı. In the seventeenth century the chief architect’s salary was between 31 and 45 akçe; he also received a share called harc-ı mi‘mârî from state construction projects.
The corps carried out the survey, construction and repair of buildings belonging to the palace and the state. The works of waqf buildings, the urban planning of Istanbul, waterways and measures against fire were also within its remit. On campaigns it took charge of roads and bridges, and in courts it acted as an expert witness. According to the encyclopedia, the technical staff under the chief architect worked in the Yalı Kiosk and the Sepetçiler Pavilion at Topkapı Palace, and near Vefa there was a workshop called the “mimarbaşı kârhânesi.” Through these duties the corps left its mark on Ottoman art and architecture throughout the empire.
According to the encyclopedia, in the seventeenth century 150 architects were registered in the corps; in 1604 about half of them were non-Muslims. This number fell to thirty-five or forty in 1691 and to eleven by the end of the century. Until the mid-seventeenth century the office of chief architect was held for life, and this practice ended in 1644. After the Imperial Land Engineering School opened in 1795, chief architects began to be chosen from among its graduates. We described this school in our article on the education system.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the most important characteristic of Ottoman art and architecture?
It is the quest for a central space unified beneath a great dome. The Şehzade and Selimiye mosques are the high points of this quest.
What were architects called in the Ottoman Empire?
Architects attached to the palace were gathered in the Corps of Imperial Architects, and the person at their head was called the mimarbaşı (chief architect).
How large is the dome of the Selimiye?
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the main dome is 31.5 meters in diameter.
When did baroque influences appear in Ottoman mosques?
They appeared from the mid-eighteenth century onward; the Nuruosmaniye and Laleli mosques are examples of this period.
Which mosque best represents the baroque style?
The TDV Encyclopedia of Islam presents the Nuruosmaniye Mosque as a full representative of the baroque style.
Why are İznik tiles important?
They reached their peak in the sixteenth century with coral red and naturalistic floral designs; the tiles of the Selimiye were specially ordered from İznik.
Conclusion
Ottoman art and architecture are the product of a determined quest for a central space, stretching from small single-domed mosques to the giant dome of the Selimiye. Külliyes carried this architecture to the center of urban life, and İznik tiles gave the decoration a color all its own. The Corps of Imperial Architects made it possible to apply this accumulated knowledge on an imperial scale.
2 thoughts on “Characteristics of Ottoman Art and Architecture”