The waqf system was the charitable order that financed mosques, madrasas, public kitchens (imarets), hospitals, fountains and roads in Ottoman society through a permanent income. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, a waqf is founded when the owner of a property dedicates it in perpetuity to a religious, social and charitable purpose. Among the Ottomans this institution became the backbone of urban life.
Quick Summary
- The income of a property was set aside in perpetuity for a charitable purpose, while the property itself was preserved.
- The founding conditions were written in a waqf deed (vakfiye), and an administrator (mütevelli) ran the endowment.
- Mosques, madrasas, imarets and hospitals lived largely on this income.
- In 1548 the cash waqf became official practice through a fatwa of Ebussuud Efendi.
- The Ministry of Imperial Endowments (Evkaf-ı Hümayun Nezareti), founded in 1826, brought the charitable institutions under central control.
Contents
- What is the waqf system?
- The waqf deed and the administrator
- Sources of income
- The cash waqf
- Mosques and neighborhood life
- Madrasas and libraries
- Imarets and hospitals
- What is a külliye?
- Impact on cities
- The Ministry of Endowments and transformation
- Frequently asked questions
What Is the Waqf System?
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the word waqf literally means “to stop, to hold back, to detain”. As a term, it refers to the dedication in perpetuity of a property by its owner to a religious, social and charitable purpose. The charitable institution founded by this act is one of the important elements of Islamic civilization. According to the encyclopedia, from the middle of the 8th century to the end of the 19th century this institution was extremely influential in the social, economic and cultural life of all Islamic countries.
An endowed property could not be sold, given away or divided through inheritance. The property itself was preserved, and only its income was spent on the designated service. This is why a charitable institution could keep working for generations after its founder’s death. The real strength of the Ottoman waqf system came from this continuity.
The Waqf Deed and the Administrator in the Waqf System
The founding document of each charitable institution was called a vakfiye (waqf deed). It recorded the endowed properties, the sources of income, the staff, their salaries and the details of the services. These documents were registered before a kadi (judge) and gave the institution its legitimacy. According to the encyclopedia, the properties were operated and let according to the conditions in the deed and at the market rate.
The person who managed the institution was called the mütevelli. According to the encyclopedia, in Ottoman practice the nazır was the person or body that supervised the administrator’s transactions and advised him when necessary. Kadis also checked whether the conditions in the deed were being observed. The administrator could not carry out any transaction against the institution’s interest. For example, he could not pay more than the market price for repairs; he had to cover any excess out of his own pocket.
Sources of Income
Behind the great complexes stood shops, inns, bathhouses, mills and village revenues. These income-producing properties were called akar. Inns and markets were rented out, and the money collected was spent on the salaries of mosque staff or on the kitchen of the imaret. In this way commercial life and charitable institutions were bound to each other.
According to the encyclopedia, there were also many charitable institutions founded to pay the avarız taxes owed by a village or neighborhood. They could be founded by the residents of the neighborhood or by other benefactors, and in this way the extraordinary taxes were lifted from the shoulders of the local people. We described these commercial buildings in our article on commercial spaces in the Ottoman state.
The Cash Waqf and Ebussuud Efendi
One of the distinctive features of the Ottoman waqf system was the cash waqf, whose capital was money. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, classical Hanafi doctrine had not regarded the cash waqf as permissible. In 1548, however, with the fatwa of Shaykh al-Islam Ebussuud Efendi and the decree that followed it, the cash waqf became an official and binding practice. According to the encyclopedia, his contemporary Birgivi opposed this practice.
These institutions earned income by lending out their capital under certain conditions. The encyclopedia notes that this capital is counted among the forerunners of the modern banking system. In this way artisans and ordinary people also gained access to small-scale credit.
Mosques and Neighborhood Life
Mosques were not only places of worship. According to the encyclopedia, professors, hadith scholars and lecturers (dersiam) were appointed to some mosques, and lessons were taught there. Preachers also played an important role in deepening the people’s religious knowledge. Madrasa teachers and students passed on knowledge to the public in mosques across the country, especially during the three holy months and Ramadan. According to the encyclopedia, like the mosques, the Sufi lodges kept their doors open to everyone; free meals were handed out there and people were given shelter.
Madrasas and Libraries
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, many madrasas in the Ottoman state were founded in this way. All expenses, from the salaries of teachers and staff to the needs of students, were met from the endowed revenues. Thanks to this arrangement, madrasas became institutions that were autonomous in scholarly, administrative and financial terms. Teaching concentrated on fields such as religion, law, medicine and astronomy.
According to the encyclopedia, mosques, madrasas and zaviyes were equipped with rich libraries. The libraries also employed staff who taught lessons to help students. We explained how education worked in our article on the Ottoman education system.
Imarets and Hospitals
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, imarets usually consisted of a kitchen, a dining hall, a pantry, a storehouse, a stable and guest rooms. Free meals were served to the staff of the complex, students, dervishes, the local poor and all travelers. According to the encyclopedia, an average of 500–1,000 people ate every day at each imaret attached to the complexes of Istanbul. In the 18th century the number of people eating daily at the imarets of Istanbul exceeded 30,000.
Hospitals (darüşşifa), infirmaries and houses of healing had been opened for the sick. According to the encyclopedia, special care was taken in choosing physicians for the hospitals, and the required qualifications were set out in detail in the waqf deeds. In this way health care, too, was sustained by the waqf system.
According to the encyclopedia, the Haseki Complex built in the name of Hürrem Sultan was the first work of Mimar Sinan after he became chief architect of the court. The complex consists of a mosque, a madrasa, a primary school, a fountain, an imaret and a hospital. The mosque was the first unit to be built; the imaret and the hospital were added twelve years later. We described the place of women among charitable works in our article on the place of women in the Ottoman period.
What Is a Külliye?
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, a külliye is a group of buildings that usually develops around a mosque. Sometimes it also takes shape around a madrasa, a commercial building or a tomb. These complexes were built to serve the public by sultans, their wives and children, viziers and pashas, and wealthy benefactors. According to the encyclopedia, the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina can be seen as the first building to bring many functions together.
The first Ottoman complexes were built by Orhan Gazi in İznik (1334) and in Bursa (1339–1340). According to the encyclopedia, the Fatih Mosque and Complex in Istanbul (1463–1470) is the largest complex in all of Ottoman history in terms of the area it covers. The Süleymaniye (1550–1557) is one of the best-known examples of the classical period. Some of these buildings also gave rise to new settlements around them.
How Did the Waqf System Shape Cities?
Charitable works could stand alone, or they could cluster around a mosque to form complexes. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, around 1540 the province of Anatolia had 342 mosques, 1,055 masjids, 110 madrasas, 626 zaviyes and hankahs, 45 imarets and 154 primary schools. The same records also listed 75 large inns and caravanserais. According to the encyclopedia, 19th-century engravings suggest that these works were so dense that they dominated the appearance of the cities.
Neighborhoods often grew up around a masjid or a fountain. Newly founded districts came to life through the services a complex provided. Charitable works also included fountains, sebils (public water kiosks), bridges, caravanserais and wells. We discussed the architectural side of these works in our article on the features of Ottoman art and architecture. For the social framework, see also the social structure of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ministry of Endowments and the Post-Tanzimat Transformation
Over time this order became open to abuse in some places. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the central government’s first remedy was to found the Ministry of Imperial Endowments (Evkaf-ı Hümayun Nezareti) in October 1826. In the following years the ministry gradually took over the management of many large charitable institutions, and revenues began to be collected at the center.
According to the encyclopedia, the ministry opened schools above the level of primary schools, such as the Medresetü’l-vaizin (school for preachers) and the Medresetü’l-kudat (school for judges). It reorganized the libraries and created new institutions such as the Evkaf-ı İslamiyye Museum and the Evkaf-ı İslamiyye Press. This centralization also changed the local and independent way in which charitable institutions had worked.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Ottoman waqf system?
It is the order based on setting aside the income of a property in perpetuity for charitable institutions such as mosques, madrasas and imarets.
What did the mütevelli do in the waqf system?
He managed the institution, collected its revenues and spent them according to the conditions in the waqf deed.
What is a cash waqf?
It is a charitable institution whose capital is cash. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, it became official in 1548 through a fatwa of Ebussuud Efendi.
Who ate at the imarets?
The staff of the complex, students, dervishes, the poor and travelers ate there.
What is the largest Ottoman complex?
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, in terms of the area it covers, it is the Fatih Mosque and Complex in Istanbul.
When was the Ministry of Endowments founded?
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, it was founded in October 1826, in the reign of Mahmud II.
Conclusion
The waqf system was the basic institution that joined religious responsibility to social solidarity in Ottoman society. Mosques, madrasas, imarets and hospitals lived on endowed revenues without burdening the state budget. The waqf deed, the administrator and the kadi’s supervision kept this order standing for centuries. In the 19th century the centralized structure opened the door to a new era.
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