The main cause of the Battle of Manzikert was the clash between the Turkmen raids directed at Anatolia and Byzantium’s decision to halt this advance. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes set out with a great army on 13 March 1071 to solve the Seljuk problem once and for all. Alp Arslan, for his part, broke off his Egyptian campaign and turned to meet him.
Quick Summary
- The battle was fought on 26 August 1071 between Sultan Alp Arslan and Romanos IV Diogenes.
- The real cause was the Turkmens’ need for a homeland and Byzantium’s effort to protect Anatolia.
- In 1071 the emperor set out on a great campaign to seize the Seljuk centres.
- Alp Arslan broke off his Egyptian campaign and returned to eastern Anatolia.
- The victory opened the way for Anatolia to become a Turkish homeland.
Contents
- The short answer
- The Turkmens’ search for a homeland
- Seljuk raids and the conquest of Ani
- Byzantium’s counter-move
- Alp Arslan’s Egyptian campaign
- The course of the battle
- The peace treaty
- The consequences of the victory
- Frequently asked questions
What Was the Cause of the Battle of Manzikert?
In short, the battle arose from the struggle for control of Anatolia. The Seljuks were turning to Anatolia in order to settle the Turkmens. Byzantium wanted to stop these raids and recover the regions it had lost. The emperor’s demand for the return of Manzikert, Akhlat and Manbij, and then his capture of this fortress, made the battle inevitable.
The Turkmens’ Search for a Homeland
The deepest cause of the battle was a migration movement. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Turkish communities that did not feel secure in the steppes of Central Asia and suffered economic hardship were pouring into Seljuk lands. These large masses, known as Turkmens, had been migrating without pause since the beginning of the 11th century. In places they also caused social unrest.
According to the encyclopedia, these communities needed to be settled in a land suited to the conditions they were used to. That land was Anatolia, with regions that recalled the steppes and were suitable for stockbreeding. The plateaus of eastern Anatolia had been discovered in the raids made by Chaghri Beg years earlier. Seljuk statesmen adopted the dispatch of the Turkmens to the Byzantine frontiers as an official settlement policy.
Reaching Anatolia, however, was not easy. According to the encyclopedia, small principalities serving as advance outposts for Byzantium stretched from the region of Lake Urmia to the north of Tbilisi. This defensive line had to be broken first.
Seljuk Raids and the Conquest of Ani
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, after the Battle of Dandanakan (1040) plans for conquest in the west were drawn up at the assembly held in Merv. Seljuk forces advanced into the interior of Anatolia, as far as Sivas. Soon after coming to the throne, Alp Arslan too set out in February 1064 on a western campaign known as the “holy war in Rum”. According to the encyclopedia, throughout his reign he campaigned in the west for conquest and in the east to keep order.
According to the encyclopedia, Alp Arslan took Ani, regarded as the best-fortified city in the region, on 16 August 1064 after a siege of more than a month. The conquest of a city thought to be impregnable caused a great stir in East and West. Caliph al-Qa’im bi-Amr Allah gave Alp Arslan the title “Abu’l-Fath”, Father of Conquest. Gagik, prince of Kars, also accepted his overlordship.
Byzantium’s Counter-Move: Romanos Diogenes
As the Turkish conquests gathered pace, Romanos IV Diogenes came to the Byzantine throne. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, in March 1068 the emperor set out on campaign with an army made up of various peoples and went as far as Marash. But he returned without winning a decisive success. In 1069 he advanced as far as the region of Harput; meanwhile the Seljuks took many cities, above all Konya.
According to the encyclopedia, in 1070 the emperor could not leave the capital because of opposition at court, and the armies he sent were not successful either. He then decided to solve the Seljuk problem once and for all. His aim was to reach Iran directly and seize the Seljuk centres. After a great ceremony in Hagia Sophia he set out on 13 March 1071.
According to the encyclopedia, some sources give figures of up to 600,000 for this army; its size, however, is estimated at around 200,000. The army was made up of Pecheneg, Uz, Kipchak and Khazar Turks as well as Slavs, Germans, Bulgarians, Franks, Armenians and Georgians. This multinational make-up would prove to be the army’s weakest point.
Why Did Alp Arslan Abandon His Egyptian Campaign?
While Byzantium was preparing, Alp Arslan had turned to another target. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, his aim was to overthrow the Shi‘i Fatimid regime in Egypt, because the Islamic world still had two heads. In May 1071 he besieged Aleppo. When the city’s emir submitted, he set out towards Egypt.
According to the encyclopedia, the emperor’s envoy caught up with the sultan on the way. The envoy demanded the return of Manbij, Akhlat and Manzikert, failing which war would be declared. The sultan sent the envoy back with a harsh reply and, breaking off the Egyptian campaign, turned to eastern Anatolia. According to the encyclopedia, because of a shortage of food he discharged some of his older soldiers and reached the region of Diyarbakır by way of Edessa. While at Silvan he learned that the emperor had taken the fortress and put its people to the sword.
The emperor had also divided his army. According to the encyclopedia, he sent a force of 20,000 men to the north-east to recover Georgia and obtain provisions. To secure his rear he also sent a force of 30,000 against Akhlat. This second force was stopped by Seljuk horsemen and forced to withdraw.
26 August 1071: The Course of the Battle
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, the Seljuks won the vanguard engagements before the great clash. Emir Sunduk, commander of the Akhlat garrison, routed Byzantine units and captured their commander, Basilakes. The great cross he carried was sent as a token of victory to the caliph in Baghdad. According to the encyclopedia, the Seljuk army numbered around 50,000 against a Byzantine army of about 200,000. This army, however, was united around a single ideal.
According to the encyclopedia, the sultan had with him experienced raider beys who knew Anatolia and the Byzantines well, such as Afshin, Sunduk and Ay Tegin. Emirs such as Artuk, Danishmend, Saltuk, Mengüjek, Chavli and Porsuk were also in the army. Some of these names later gave their names to the beyliks that would be founded in Anatolia after the battle.
On 24 August 1071 Alp Arslan set up his headquarters on the plain of Rahva between Akhlat and Manzikert. According to the encyclopedia, he first sent the emperor an embassy that ostensibly offered peace; its real aim was to learn the enemy’s situation. The emperor, thinking the sultan was cornered, harshly rejected the offer. Meanwhile the Abbasid caliph al-Qa’im bi-Amr Allah ordered that a prayer he had composed for victory be read at the Friday prayer in all Islamic lands.
On Friday, 26 August, Alp Arslan performed the Friday prayer together with his army. According to the encyclopedia, he put on a white garment, saying “If I die, let it be my shroud”, and made his famous speech to his soldiers. He said that he would fight as one of them and that anyone who wished could go back. He then launched the first attack.
According to the encyclopedia, a feigned retreat directed by the sultan drew the Byzantine centre in front of units lying in ambush. The soldiers of Turkish origin on the Byzantine right wing went over to the Seljuk side together with their commander, Tamış Bey. The army broke up, and the emperor and many generals were taken prisoner. We described the other wars on the Seljuk side in our article on the wars of the Great Seljuks.
How Was Romanos Diogenes Treated?
According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Alp Arslan treated the captive emperor not as a prisoner of war but as a guest ruler. A peace treaty was signed between the two rulers. Under it the emperor would pay 1.5 million gold pieces as ransom, and Byzantium 360,000 gold pieces in tribute every year. All Muslim prisoners would be freed, and Antioch, Edessa, Manbij and Manzikert would be left to the Seljuks.
According to the encyclopedia, a day after the treaty Alp Arslan saw the emperor and his retinue off to Constantinople. But the Byzantine Senate had already deposed him and proclaimed Michael VII Doukas emperor in his place. Romanos Diogenes was blinded at Kotyaion (Kütahya); the following year he died in prison on the island of Prote (Kınalıada).
The Consequences of the Victory at Manzikert
The victory was greeted with great enthusiasm throughout the Islamic world. According to the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, many historians compared it to the victories of Yarmuk and Qadisiyya in the time of Caliph Umar. Because Byzantium’s great army had broken up, in the following years the Turks advanced as far as the Aegean and Marmara coasts without meeting serious resistance.
According to the encyclopedia, this time the Turks made the lands they conquered their homeland rather than aiming at plunder. States such as those of the Saltukids, Mengüjekids, Danishmendids, Ahlatshahs and Artukids were founded. When rule in Anatolia and Syria passed to the Muslim Turks, Europe came together and began to prepare for the Crusades.
Seljuk rule expanded further in the reign of Alp Arslan’s son Malik-Shah. We discussed his suspicious death in our article Who killed Malik-Shah?
Frequently Asked Questions
When was the Battle of Manzikert fought?
It was fought on Friday, 26 August 1071, on the plain of Rahva near Akhlat.
What was the real cause of the Battle of Manzikert?
The Turkmens’ need to settle in Anatolia and Byzantium’s decision to stop the Turkish raids once and for all.
Why was Romanos Diogenes defeated?
His army was multinational and scattered. The feigned retreat tactic and the change of sides by soldiers of Turkish origin hastened the rout.
What were the terms of the Treaty of Manzikert?
A ransom, an annual tribute, the release of prisoners, and the cession of Antioch, Edessa, Manbij and the fortress in the region to the Seljuks.
Which states were founded in Anatolia after the battle?
Turkish states such as those of the Saltukids, Mengüjekids, Danishmendids, Ahlatshahs and Artukids were founded.
Conclusion
The cause of the Battle of Manzikert was the clash between the Turkmens’ search for a homeland in Anatolia and Byzantium’s decision to halt this advance for good. Romanos Diogenes marched on the Seljuk centres with a large but scattered army. Alp Arslan, abandoning his Egyptian campaign, inflicted a heavy defeat on him on 26 August 1071. This victory opened the door for Anatolia soon to become a Turkish homeland.
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